Justice Quarterly 26(3)

Racial Discrimination and Hirschi's Criminological Classic: A Chapter in the Sociology of Knowledge
James D. Unnever; Francis T. Cullen; Scott A. Mathers; Timothy E. McClure; Marisa C. Allison

In Causes of Delinquency, Travis Hirschi attempted to falsify the strain theory claim that racial discrimination might contribute to the delinquency of African American youths. A reanalysis of the Richmond Youth Project data used in his classic study, however, reveals that perceived racial discrimination is a robust predictor of delinquent involvement. This finding suggests that Hirschi missed a historic opportunity to focus the attention of a generation of criminologists on how the unique experiences of African Americans may shape their criminality. Given the salience of perceived racial bias in the lives of many African Americans, the subsequent neglect by scholars of discrimination as a potential source of crime is a remarkable omission—so much so that it constitutes a significant and as yet untold chapter in the sociology of knowledge.

Gendered Responses to Serious Strain: The Argument for a General Strain Theory of Deviance
Joanne M. Kaufman

This paper expands and builds on newer avenues in research on gender and general strain theory (GST). I accomplish this by focusing on serious strains that are relevant for males and females, including externalizing and internalizing forms of negative emotions, and including multiple gendered deviant outcomes. Using the Add Health dataset, I find strong support for the impact of serious strains on both types of negative emotions and different forms of deviance for males and females. However, the experience of serious strain, emotionally and behaviorally, is gendered. Depressive symptoms are particularly important for all types of deviance by females. Including multiple types of deviant outcomes offers a fuller understanding of both similarities and differences by gender. These results support the utility of GST as a theory of deviance in general and support greater connections between GST, feminist theorizing, and the sociology of mental health.

Understanding Physical Victimization Inside Prisons: Factors that Predict Risk
Nancy Wolff; Jing Shi; Jane Siegel

Research evidence on the prevalence of physical victimization inside prison settings has grown in precision and specificity. Considerably less explored are the factors predicting physical victimization. Using a sample of approximately 7,000 male inmates, a multilevel predictive model of victimization was estimated that includes characteristics of the individual and environment. Overall, prisons with poorer climates (higher levels of inmate dissatisfaction with officers and/or other inmates) had higher rates of inmate-on-inmate and staff-on-inmate victimization. The effect of inmate characteristics on victimization varied by type of perpetrator. Younger inmates, whites, and those with convictions involving sexual victimization were more likely to report physical victimization by other inmates. Characteristics increasing the likelihood of being physically assaulted by staff included non-white, convicted of a violent crime, and higher education. Knowing the characteristics of prisons and inmates that elevate their risk for victimization provides facilities with information that can inform prevention strategies (n = 147).

Career Dimensions of Stalking Victimization and Perpetration
Matt R. Nobles; Kathleen A. Fox; Nicole Piquero; Alex R. Piquero

Prior literature concerning stalking, particularly in the field of criminology, finds wide variation in fundamental trends regarding stalking victimization and perpetration. There seems to be little consensus regarding when and how stalking is manifested. Furthermore, prior research to date has not addressed the etiology of stalking-related behaviors by applying principles from criminal career research, including participation, frequency, onset, and duration. The present study builds upon prior research by addressing trends in age of onset for stalking victimization and perpetration, the duration of stalking-related behaviors, and the relationship between those behaviors and other types of crime over the life course using primary data from a sample of young adults. Findings indicate that stalking victimization and perpetration share important career attribute similarities, and that self-reported history of intimate partner violence and sexual assault are strongly associated with stalking outcomes.

Speeding While Black? Assessing the Generalizability of Lange et al.’s (2001, 2005) New Jersey Turnpike Speeding Survey Findings
Richard J. Lundman; Brian R. Kowalski

Across three months during 2001, Lange, Blackman, Johnson and Voas collected data from the New Jersey Turnpike to determine whether there were differences in speeding behavior grounded in race and ethnicity, while controlling for age and gender. They reported that Black drivers were more likely to speed at high rates (15 mph or more over the speed limit) in 65 mph speed zones, as were young drivers and male drivers. In the scholarly report of their research, Lange and colleagues concluded: “our research offer[s] a plausible explanation for the findings that Black drivers are represented among traffic stops at a higher rate than they are represented in the population.” The present research assesses the generalizability of the findings reported by Lange and colleagues using data reported by Massachusetts State Police officers during April and May of 2001. We also find that Black drivers, young drivers, and male drivers are more likely to speed at high rates in 65 mph speed zones. We therefore remind scholars that Lange and colleagues' findings and our own are entirely consistent with theory and research on the correlates of law violative actions. Our fundamental conclusion, however, is that more research is needed to determine whether traffic stops for Driving While Black are in small part the result of Speeding While Black.

Revisiting the Racial Threat Thesis: The Role of Police Organizational Characteristics in Predicting Race-Specific Drug Arrest Rates
David Eitle; Susanne Monahan

Previous research examining the relationship between structural factors and drug arrest rates has neglected the role of the police organization. A central proposition of racial threat theory is that indicators of a threatening Black population will be associated with law enforcement actions as a form of social control. In order to fully test this proposition, however, organizational aspects of law enforcement beyond size of the police force must be considered. Hence, the present study examines police organizational factors as direct predictors of race-specific drug arrest rates but also as potential moderators of the effects of structural factors on drug arrest rates. Using data from 260 cities, we find that police organizational factors matter, both directly and as moderators of the association between racial economic competition and Black drug arrest rates. Consistent with expectations derived from racial threat and organizational theory, we find that racial threat measures are associated with Black drug arrest rates under conditions of relatively low organizational control.

Racial Bias in Case Processing: Does Victim Race Affect Police Clearance of Violent Crime Incidents?
Terrance J. Taylor; David Holleran; Volkan Topalli

Prior studies have illustrated racial differences in perceptions of police legitimacy. African-Americans' views, however, appear to be complex, shaped by perceptions of over-enforcement of crimes committed by African-American offenders coupled with under-enforcement of crimes involving African-American victims. Using data from the 2002 National Incident-Based Reporting System, we examine whether victim race (alone, and in combination with offender race) affects police case clearance of four types of violent criminal incidents (homicide, aggravated assault, rape, and robbery) as a potential explanation of African-Americans' reduced levels of support for the police. Results suggest that the race of the victim, particularly in combination with the race of the offender, is related to police clearance of violent criminal incidents, but that this relationship is not as strong as those between agency, offense type, and situational characteristics of the incident. Implications for research and policy on police—community relations are discussed.

Striking Out: Race and Support for Police Use of Force
Devon Johnson; Joseph B. Kuhns

This research examines whites' and blacks' support for police use of force using a survey-based experiment that varies the race of the offender across four different scenarios. Bivariate results show that the race of the offender influences blacks' approval for the use of force by police, but does not affect whites' approval. Multivariate analyses examine whether the factors influencing support for police use of force vary depending on the race of the offender. Results indicate that the predictors for approval of police use of force differ by the race of respondent, the race of offender, and the appropriateness of the use of force. The implications of the results for police-community relations are discussed.

Justice Quarterly, September 2009: Volume 26, Issue 3