Theoretical Criminology 15(3)

Theorizing surveillance in crime control
Kevin D. Haggerty, Dean Wilson, and Gavin J.D. Smith

Surveillance is conventionally perceived as a key component of the crime control apparatus. This editors’ introduction to a Special Issue of Theoretical Criminology on ‘Theorizing Surveillance in Crime Control’ outlines both the need for new theorizing on surveillance and some of the difficulties in doing so. It also introduces the seven pieces in the Special Issue.

Surveillance and violence from afar: The politics of drones and liminal security-scapes
Tyler Wall and Torin Monahan

As surveillance and military devices, drones—or ‘unmanned aerial vehicles’—offer a prism for theorizing the technological politics of warfare and governance. This prism reveals some violent articulations of US imperialism and nationalism, the dehumanizing translation of bodies into ‘targets’ for remote monitoring and destruction, and the insidious application of militarized systems and rationalities to domestic territories and populations. In this article, we analyze the deployment of drones within warzones in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan and borderzones and urban areas in the USA. What we call ‘the drone stare’ is a type of surveillance that abstracts people from contexts, thereby reducing variation, difference, and noise that may impede action or introduce moral ambiguity. Through these processes, drones further normalize the ongoing subjugation of those marked as Other.

The benevolent watch: Therapeutic surveillance in drug treatment court
Dawn Moore

This article offers an alternative to the traditional, technocentric and control oriented focus of surveillance studies. Drawing on field work in drug treatment courts (DTCs), I theorize the notion of ‘therapeutic surveillance’ as a seemingly benevolent form of monitoring which also troubles the ‘care/control’ dichotomy familiar to surveillance studies and social theory more generally. I look specifically at the roles of judges, treatment workers and DTC participants in constituting a surveillant assemblage which relies on personal relationships, intimate knowledge and pastoral care. I suggest that surveillance studies can move beyond the panopticon by recognizing the varied ways in which surveillance takes place. These strategies can include benevolent acts and intentions alongside (and sometimes coterminous with) coercive manoeuvres.

Hijackers and humble servants: Individuals as camwitnesses in contemporary controlwork
Hille Koskela

This article examines the relationships between the authorities of surveillance and the public. Four ‘modalities of surveillance’ are used as a contextual framework to describe different relationships and to demonstrate that they can be bidirectional as well as unidirectional. In contemporary surveillance there is a dialogue between traditional surveillance and counter-surveillance which is targeted against the authorities. Yet, surveillance also contains performative practices and incidental witnessing in which the authorities play no role. The latest development involves responsibilizing the public, as citizens are encouraged to participate in gathering evidence for crime control. The article shows how the mutual correlations between surveillance, crime and evidence are constantly transforming.

Revisiting the synopticon: Reconsidering Mathiesen’s ‘The Viewer Society’ in the age of Web 2.0
Aaron Doyle

Thomas Mathiesen’s ‘The Viewer Society’ has been widely influential. Mathiesen posited, alongside the panopticon, a reciprocal system of control, the synopticon, in which ‘the many’ watch ‘the few’. I point to the value of Mathiesen’s arguments but also suggest a reconsideration. I consider where recent challenges to theorizing surveillance as panoptic leave the synopticon. The synopticon is tied to a top—down, instrumental way of theorizing the media. It neglects resistance, alternative currents in media production and reception, the role of culture and the increasing centrality of the internet. Mathiesen’s piece is most useful in a narrower way, in highlighting how surveillance and the mass media interact, rather than in thinking about the role of the media in control more generally.

Counterveillance: How Foucault and the Groupe d’Information sur les Prisons reversed the optics
Michael Welch

The analysis herein considers the dynamics of panopticism by developing further the concept of counter-surveillance—or counterveillance—whereby prison officials rather than the prisoners become the target of unwanted attention. While maintaining an interest in panoptic as well as synoptic theory, the article describes two counterveillant tactics deployed by Foucault and the Groupe d’Information sur les Prisons (GIP) in France during the 1970s. First, the GIP turned the prison inside out, in a manner of speaking, so as to publicly expose the harsh conditions of confinement. Second, the group set out to watch the watchers in an effort to hold certain prison administrators accountable for their unjust policies and practices. Implications of optical activism aimed at improving transparency in penal operations also are discussed alongside the limits of such protest.

The use of surveillance cameras in a Riyadh shopping mall: Protecting profits or protecting morality?
Ibrahim Alhadar and Michael McCahill

The rise of mass private property means that people increasingly spend their time in publicly accessible spaces controlled by private interests. Unlike public policing, which is reactive and morally toned, the policing that takes place in mass private property tends to be proactive and instrumental and utilizes new surveillance technologies (such as surveillance cameras) not to punish deviants, but to create and sustain the flow of profit. However, much of the literature on this topic has focused on the emergence of private policing in western industrial societies. In contrast, this study draws upon interviews and observational research conducted in the surveillance camera control room of a shopping mall in Riyadh (the capital City of Saudi Arabia) to show how private policing and the use of new surveillance technologies are shaped by existing social relations and cultural traditions. In this setting we argue that new surveillance technologies are used not only to protect profit, but to protect public morality. We discuss the significance of our empirical findings for broader theoretical debates on surveillance, gender and resistance.

‘Crimmigrant’ bodies and bona fide travelers: Surveillance, citizenship and global governance
Katja Franko Aas

The article explores the nature of surveillance and crime control as they enter the sphere of global governance. Taking the European Union (EU) as a point of departure, it examines the relationship between surveillance and sovereignty, and looks more broadly at the role that transnational surveillance and crime control play in constructing a particular type of globally divided polity. Transnational surveillance practices are increasingly addressing a public which is no longer defined exclusively as the citizenry of the nation state, nor are all European citizens entitled to the privileges of such citizenship. Through the notions of bona fide global citizens and ‘crimmigrant’ others the article details how the seeming universality of citizenship is punctuated by novel categories of globally included and excluded populations, thus revealing the inadequacy of the traditional liberal language of citizenship as the springboard for articulating a critical discourse of rights.

Theoretical Criminology, August 2011: Volume 15, Issue 3

Critical Criminology 19(3)

Structuration Theory and Wrongful Imprisonment: From ‘Victimhood’ to ‘Survivorship’?
Gabe Tan

Building on existing research from a zemiological approach, this article seeks to contribute to a more ontological understanding of the production and reproduction of harms associated with wrongful imprisonment in England and Wales. Drawing from Anthony Giddens’s theory of structuration, it is argued that whilst the harms of wrongful imprisonment are both complex and devastating, victims need not be perceived as entirely passive. Rather, victims of wrongful imprisonment can be viewed as knowledgeable agents with the intrinsic capacity and agency to strategically cope with and even survive the harms that they experience. The article concludes with personal accounts by victims of wrongful imprisonment that form an identifiable ‘survivor’ discourse to highlight some of the key critical factors that are vital in helping victims of wrongful imprisonment to re-structure their lives after release.

Cultural Criminology: An Invitation… to What?
Dale Spencer

Since the mid 1990s, a strand of criminology emerged that is concerned with the co-constitution of crime and culture under the general rubric of ‘cultural criminology’. In the titles Cultural Criminology Unleashed and Cultural Criminology: An Invitation, criminologists spearheading this brand of criminology make claims for its originality and its status as a subversive alternative to conventional criminological approaches to studies of crime and deviance. The basis for the ‘new’ cultural criminology is its ostensible ability to account for the culture and subcultures of crime, the criminalization of cultural and subcultural activities, and the politics of criminalization. This paper offers a comparison of cultural criminology to 1960s and 1970s labeling theory to assess whether or not cultural criminology has developed a grammar of critique capable of resolving fundamental contradictions that haunt critical criminology and contesting contemporary administrative criminology. Points of comparison are made through ontological categories of power and criminal identity and a consideration of the epistemological categories of the respective bodies of literature.

OxyContin and a Regulation Deficiency of the Pharmaceutical Industry: Rethinking State-Corporate Crime
O. Hayden Griffin & Bryan Lee Miller

On May 10, 2007, three executives of the pharmaceutical company Purdue Pharma pled guilty in federal court to misleading doctors and patients about the risk of addiction and potential for abuse of OxyContin. Additionally, Purdue Pharma paid over $600 million in fines and other payments to the United States government and the Commonwealth of Virginia. The drug OxyContin was first introduced to the market in December of 1995. Warning signs of the drug’s potential for abuse were almost immediate, and there were reports of copious amounts of the drug being diverted into the black market for recreational use. In some cases, criminologists have argued that if the government fails to protect its citizens from the harm of a corporation then such behavior should be considered state-corporate crime. We critically evaluate the case of OxyContin to see if it falls under the state-corporate crime paradigm. Further, we argue the state-corporate crime paradigm can benefit from an increased focus on the organizational structures of regulation agencies.

How an Elite-Engineered Moral Panic Led to the U.S. War on Iraq
Scott A. Bonn

Critics argue that the G.W. Bush administration deliberately misled the U.S. public about an Iraqi threat after 9/11 but empirical evidence that presidential deception influenced public support for war has been lacking. An examination of presidential rhetoric concerning Iraq in the U.S. media revealed that it changed in tone after 9/11, consistent with moral panic processes. Logistic regression analysis of public opinion leading up to the war revealed that shifts in support for invasion directly mirrored presidential rhetoric. The findings of this study suggest that the Bush administration engineered a moral panic over Iraq with the support of the media.

Criminology and Human-Animal Violence Research: The Contribution and the Challenge
Nik Taylor

Using theories concerning human-animal abuse links this paper assesses the role(s) that criminology can play in understanding human-animal relationships. That this is not a one-way process of knowledge transferral is acknowledged with analysis of the contribution that human-animal studies can offer in return. Following a brief outline of human-animal abuse theses the contributions that criminology can play in furthering understandings of, and informing responses to, this phenomenon are discussed. A critique of mainstream approaches towards human-animal abuse links, namely, their conceptualization of animals as tools, is then outlined. The argument that anthropocentric approaches to the study of interhuman violence actually reinforce the forms of oppression which create and maintain such forms of violence in the first place, is then developed. The author concludes that the incorporation of human-animal relationships into criminology offers something in return, i.e. an opportunity to re-think the modernist foundations upon which (traditional) criminology is built.

Critical Criminology, September 2011: Volume 19, Issue 3

Crime & Delinquency 57(5)

How Justice System Officials View Wrongful Convictions
Brad Smith, Marvin Zalman, and Angie Kiger

The wrongful conviction of factually innocent people is a growing concern within the United States. Reforms generated by this concern are predicated in part on the views of justice system participants. The authors surveyed judges, police officials, prosecutors, and defense lawyers in Michigan regarding their views of why wrongful convictions occur. The findings reveal that all groups acknowledge error and inaccuracy among justice system participants. In general, police and prosecutors believe that error levels are lowest, judges estimate higher error levels, and defense attorneys rank errors higher than other respondents. A majority of police, prosecutors, and judges believe that wrongful convictions do not occur with sufficient frequency to warrant system reforms, whereas a majority of defense attorneys believe that procedural changes are warranted. The findings reveal distinct occupational perspectives in respondents’ attitudes concerning wrongful conviction.

Parole? Nope, Not for Me: Voluntarily Maxing Out of Prison
Michael Ostermann

This study addresses the phenomenon of inmates voluntarily forgoing parole supervision and opting to remain in prison until the maximum expiration of their sentence. The research was conducted to inform public policy makers about the potential repercussions of this decision-making process and to help guide future policy and legislative proposals that would target this group of inmates. Bivariate and multivariate analyses are used to explore characteristics of this population with regard to postrelease recidivism and prerelease indicators of recidivism. A 2005 group of voluntary max outs are contrasted with those who are forced to max out due to continual parole denial as well as those who are released to parole supervision. All offenders were released in the state of New Jersey. Although several between-group differences were apparent between both max out groups and the parole group at a bivariate level, differences between the two max out groups were far less pronounced. Multivariate Cox regression models indicated that, after controlling for pertinent predictor variables, the likelihood of experiencing a new arrest and/or incarceration after release did not significantly differ according to group membership. Findings suggest that parole boards that make decisions in discretionary release systems should more closely analyze the release opportunities that already present themselves to their agencies but are not capitalized on. Because those who are forced to max through continual denial of parole demonstrated such similar prerelease characteristics to the voluntary max out group, it is unlikely that many who would have otherwise voluntarily maxed their sentence would be paroled if the ability to make this decision were taken away.

Institutional Misconduct, Delinquent Background, and Rearrest Frequency Among Serious and Violent Delinquent Offenders
Chad R. Trulson, Matt DeLisi, and James W. Marquart

This study examines the relationship of institutional misconduct to postrelease rearrest, controlling for a battery of preincarceration variables typically found to influence recidivism among institutionalized delinquent offenders. Based on data from 1,804 serious and violent male delinquents released from a large southern juvenile correctional system, this research found limited support for institutional misconduct as a determinant of recidivism. Of all measures of misconduct, only the rate of total misconduct infractions was related to postrelease rearrest, and this effect was generally small and found only in the rearrest frequency model, not the dichotomous rearrest model. Implications for research and practice are explored.

Repeat Offending and Repeat Victimization: Assessing Similarities and Differences in Psychosocial Risk Factors
Abigail A. Fagan and Paul Mazerolle

The overlap between victims and offenders is increasingly being recognized, with mounting evidence that victims and offenders have similar demographic characteristics, that victimization increases the likelihood of offending, and that offenders are at high risk for becoming victims of crime. Despite this evidence, there is limited research regarding the extent to which repeat victims are likely to be repeat offenders, and few studies have assessed whether predictors of repeat victimization and repeat offending are similar. Using data from a longitudinal study of young people in Brisbane, Australia, this study demonstrates that despite some overlap, there are some important differences in predictors of repeat offenders and repeat victims.

Disregarding Graduated Treatment: Why Transfer Aggravates Recidivism
Kristin Johnson, Lonn Lanza-Kaduce, and Jennifer Woolard

These data merge correctional histories with official state and courthouse information for a sample of teenage offenders, some of whom had been transferred to the adult system. Previous research indicated that transfer aggravates recidivism after the age of 18. The correctional data allow the examination of the relationship between sanctions and recidivism for repeat offenders. The authors explored whether repeat offenders who received graduated sanctions had lower recidivism after age 18 than those who leapfrogged over graduated sanctions. Transfer often involves leapfrogging over treatment options; sometimes it leads to secure placement in adult facilities but sometimes it results in adult probation. Within the juvenile justice system, some repeat offenders jump over intermediate interventions to deep-end placements. Graduated sanctions lead to less recidivism. When measures of graduated sanctions are included in multivariate analyses, transfer no longer predicts recidivism.

How Long After? A Natural Experiment Assessing the Impact of the Length of Aftercare Service Delivery on Recidivism
Megan C. Kurlychek, Andrew P. Wheeler, Leigh A. Tinik, and Cynthia A. Kempinen

Although aftercare programs have been gaining popularity as a mechanism for helping offenders readjust to society, evaluations of their success remain varied. This is most likely due to the diversity of programs labeled as aftercare and the inability of research to isolate specific program components. The current study capitalizes on a natural experiment to examine the impact of one particular component, length of service delivery, on recidivism. The study employs survival analysis techniques on a population of inmates graduating from a motivational boot camp who either received no aftercare, 30 days of aftercare, or 90 days of aftercare (depending on the existing policy on their graduation date). Findings show that those receiving 30 days of aftercare services are indistinguishable from those receiving no aftercare services in terms of recidivism. Also, we find that although those receiving 90 days of aftercare did recidivate substantially less than those receiving 0 or 30 days of aftercare, after accounting for sample attrition, however, these findings also lacked statistical significance.

Confronting Delinquency: Probations Officers’ Use of Coercion and Client-Centered Tactics to Foster Youth Compliance
Craig S. Schwalbe and Tina Maschi

Youthful compliance with juvenile court mandates is a cornerstone of effective probation practice. Despite this, research has not examined probation strategies for encouraging and enforcing youthful compliance with probation conditions. This study describes the use of confrontational tactics and client-centered approaches reported by probation officers in their supervision of delinquent youths. The study was conducted with data from a Web-based survey of probation (N = 308). Results indicate that officers balanced confrontational approaches with client-centered approaches. Officers employed confrontational tactics more frequently than client-centered strategies for youths with substance use problems, with younger youths, and with African American females. Alternatively, officers reported more client-centered approaches with females who had higher histories of prior service utilization and with youths who were perceived by officers to be honest. These findings open new avenues for research on the effectiveness of confrontation and client-centered approaches toward an evidence base for effective probation practice.

Crime & Delinquency, September 2011: Volume 57, Issue 5

Criminology 49(3)

Spreading The Wealth: The Effect Of The Distribution Of Income And Race/Ethnicity Across Households And Neighborhoods On City Crime Trajectories
John R. Hipp

This study tests the effect of the composition and distribution of economic resources and race/ethnicity in cities, as well as how they are geographically distributed within these cities, on crime rates during a 30-year period. Using data on 352 cities from 1970 to 2000 in metropolitan areas that experienced a large growth in population after World War II, this study theorizes that the effect of racial/ethnic or economic segregation on crime is stronger in cities in which race/ethnicity or income are more salient (because of greater heterogeneity or inequality). We test and find that higher levels of segregation in cities with high levels of racial/ethnic heterogeneity lead to particularly high overall levels of the types of crime studied here (aggravated assaults, robberies, burglaries, and motor vehicle thefts). Similarly, higher levels of economic segregation lead to much higher levels of crime in cities with higher levels of inequality.

Testing A Bayesian Learning Theory Of Deterrence Among Serious Juvenile Offenders
Shamena Anwar and Thomas A. Loughran

The effect of criminal experience on risk perceptions is of central importance to deterrence theory but has been vastly understudied. This article develops a realistic Bayesian learning model of how individuals will update their risk perceptions over time in response to the signals they receive during their offending experiences. This model implies a simple function that we estimate to determine the deterrent effect of an arrest. We find that an individual who commits one crime and is arrested will increase his or her perceived probability of being caught by 6.3 percent compared with if he or she had not been arrested. We also find evidence that the more informative the signal received by an individual is, the more he or she will respond to it, which is consistent with more experienced offenders responding less to an arrest than less experienced offenders do. Parsing our results out by type of crime indicates that an individual who is arrested for an aggressive crime will increase both his or her aggressive crime risk perception as well as his or her income-generating crime risk perception, although the magnitude of the former may be slightly larger. This implies that risk perception updating, and thus potentially deterrence, may be partially, although not completely, crime specific.

The Cultural Context Of Adolescent Drinking And Violence In 30 European Countries
Richard B. Felson, Jukka Savolainen, Thoroddur Bjarnason, Amy L. Anderson and I. Tusty Zohra

Cross-national variation in the effect of alcohol on adolescent violence is examined with survey data from 30 European countries. The data are analyzed using a method that makes it possible to isolate the nonspurious portion of the alcohol–violence relationship in different countries. In addition, multilevel models are used to estimate the effects of region and contextual measures of adolescent drinking on the alcohol–violence relationship. The evidence suggests that drinking has a strong effect on adolescent violence in the Nordic and Eastern European countries but has little or no effect in the Mediterranean countries. In the Mediterranean countries, where adolescents drink frequently but in moderation, the relationship between alcohol use and violence is almost entirely spurious. Findings suggest that the observed pattern is due to regional differences in the tendency for adolescents and their peers to drink to intoxication, as well as in their tendency to become intoxicated in settings where adult guardianship is absent.

Informal Control And Illicit Drug Trade
Scott Jacques and Richard Wright

Antidrug legislation and enforcement are meant to reduce the trade in illegal drugs by increasing their price. Yet the unintended consequence is an increase in informal control—including retaliation, negotiation, avoidance, and toleration—among drug users and dealers. Little existing theory or research has explored the connections between informal control and drug trading. This article uses the rational choice and opportunity perspectives to explore the question: How and why does the frequency and seriousness of popular justice—as a whole or for each form—affect the price and rate of drug sales? The proposed theory is grounded on and illustrated with qualitative data obtained from drug dealers. This article concludes by discussing the scholarly and policy implications.

Predicting The Violent Offender:The Discriminant Validity Of The Subculture Of Violence
Jean Marie Mcgloin, Christopher J. Schreck, Eric A. Stewart and Graham C. Ousey

This study tests the extent to which an adherence to the subculture of violence uniquely predicts a tendency to favor violence or instead predicts a more generalized offending repertoire, of which violence is part. Specifically, we use a unique analytic technique that provides the opportunity to distinguish empirically between the “violent offender” and/or the “frequent offender.” The results suggest that holding values favorable toward violence consistently predicts general offending but do not identify youth who systematically favor violence over nonviolence. This discussion considers the impact of these findings for the continued utility of the subculture of violence perspective.

The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment: A Randomized Controlled Trial Of Police Patrol Effectiveness In Violent Crime Hotspots
Jerry H. Ratcliffe, Travis Taniguchi, Elizabeth R. Groff and Jennifer D. Wood

Originating with the Newark, NJ, foot patrol experiment, research has found police foot patrols improve community perception of the police and reduce fear of crime, but they are generally unable to reduce the incidence of crime. Previous tests of foot patrol have, however, suffered from statistical and measurement issues and have not fully explored the potential dynamics of deterrence within microspatial settings. In this article, we report on the efforts of more than 200 foot patrol officers during the summer of 2009 in Philadelphia. Geographic information systems (GIS) analysis was the basis for a randomized controlled trial of police effectiveness across 60 violent crime hotspots. The results identified a significant reduction in the level of treatment area violent crime after 12 weeks. A linear regression model with separate slopes fitted for treatment and control groups clarified the relationship even more. Even after accounting for natural regression to the mean, target areas in the top 40 percent on pretreatment violent crime counts had significantly less violent crime during the operational period. Target areas outperformed the control sites by 23 percent, resulting in a total net effect (once displacement was considered) of 53 violent crimes prevented. The results suggest that targeted foot patrols in violent crime hotspots can significantly reduce violent crime levels as long as a threshold level of violence exists initially. The findings contribute to a growing body of evidence on the contribution of hotspots and place-based policing to the reduction of crime, and especially violent crime, which is a significant public health threat in the United States. We suggest that intensive foot patrol efforts in violent hotspots may achieve deterrence at a microspatial level, primarily by increasing the certainty of disruption, apprehension, and arrest. The theoretical and practical implications for violence reduction are discussed.

A Longitudinal Test Of Social Disorganization Theory: Feedback Effects Among Cohesion, Social Control, And Disorder
Wouter Steenbeek and John R. Hipp

Social disorganization theory holds that neighborhoods with greater residential stability, higher socioeconomic status, and more ethnic homogeneity experience less disorder because these neighborhoods have higher social cohesion and exercise more social control. Recent extensions of the theory argue that disorder in turn affects these structural characteristics and mechanisms. Using a data set on 74 neighborhoods in the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands spanning 10 years, we tested the extended theory, which to date only a few studies have been able to do because of the unavailability of neighborhood-level longitudinal data. We also improve on previous studies by distinguishing between the potential for social control (feelings of responsibility) and the actual social control behavior. Cross-sectional analyses replicate earlier findings, but the results of longitudinal cross-lagged models suggest that disorder has large consequences for subsequent levels of social control and residential instability, thus leading to more disorder. This is in contrast to most previous studies, which assume disorder to be more a consequence than a cause. This study underlines the importance of longitudinal data, allowing for simultaneously testing the causes and consequences of disorder, as well as the importance of breaking down social control into the two dimensions of the potential for social control and the actual social control behavior.

Neighborhood Context And Nonlinear Peer Effects On Adolescent Violent Crime
Gregory M. Zimmerman and Steven F. Messner

Although evidence of the strong correlation between deviant behavior and exposure to deviant peers is overwhelming, researchers have yet to investigate whether a nonlinear functional form better captures this relationship than does a linear form. Researchers also have yet to examine the extent to which peer effects vary as a function of the neighborhood context. To address these issues, we use data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) to examine 1) the functional form of the relationship between peer violence exposure and self-reported violent crime and 2) the extent to which the effect of exposure to violent peers on violence is ecologically structured. Estimates from logistic hierarchical models indicate that the effect of peer violence exposure on violent crime decreases at higher values of peer violence, as reflected in a nonlinear relationship (expressed in terms of log-odds). Furthermore, exposure to violent peers increases along with neighborhood disadvantage, and the effect of peer violence exposure on violent crime is attenuated as neighborhood disadvantage increases, which is reflected in a cross-level peer violence/disadvantage interaction.

Research Note: The Utility Of The Deviant Case In The Development Of Criminological Theory
Christopher J. Sullivan

This article asserts that the deviant case method offers a potential avenue for enhancing theory directed at explaining crime by using more available information to better connect the process of analyzing cases with that of explanatory refinement and elaboration. This approach has facilitated theoretical development in other social sciences and has proven useful where applied in criminological inquiry. Extant research is reviewed, and an empirical example is presented to demonstrate how this approach might be operationalized in criminological inquiry using quantitative methods. Conclusions relevant to future research are considered.

Criminology, August 2011: Volume 49, Issue 3

Journal of Quantitative Criminology 27(3)

How Do They ‘End Up Together’? A Social Network Analysis of Self-Control, Homophily, and Adolescent Relationships
Jacob T. N. Young

Self-control theory (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) argues that individuals with similar attributes tend to ‘end up together’ (i.e., homophily) because of the tendency to select friends based on self-control. Studies documenting homophily in peer groups interpret the correlation between self-control, peer delinquency, and self-reported delinquency as evidence that self-control is an influential factor in friendship formation. However, past studies are limited because they do not directly test the hypothesis that self-control influences friendship selection, nor do they account for other mechanisms that may influence decisions. As a result, it is unclear whether the correlation between individual and peer behavior is the result of selection based on self-control or alternative mechanisms. To address this gap in the literature this study employs exponential random graph modeling to test hypotheses derived from self-control theory using approximately 63,000 respondents from 59 schools from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health). In contrast to the predictions made by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), and the conclusions drawn from prior research, there is little evidence that self-control influences friendship selection. The findings are embedded in past work on the relationship between self-control and peer relationships, and implications for future research are discussed.

The Distribution of Police Protection
David Thacher

This paper investigates the distribution of police protection in the United States by race and class. By examining police employment and demographic data for every general-service police jurisdiction in the US, I find that poor and heavily-nonwhite jurisdictions employ far fewer officers per crime than wealthy and white jurisdictions do. That finding contrasts with an older body of literature on the distribution of police protection, which examined the distribution of police resources across neighborhoods within individual cities and found little inequality. I also find that inequality in police protection has grown since 1970—a finding that contrasts with the increasingly equal distribution of resources for education, the other major claim on local government revenues—largely because criminal victimization became more concentrated in disadvantaged communities. (In the process, I find that contrary to widespread impressions, the crime rate fell very little in the most disadvantaged jurisdictions from 1980 to 2000, and violent crime actually increased). Finally, by examining data about federal grant programs, I find that the rise of federal contributions to local policing in the 1990s slowed the growth of inequality somewhat, suggesting that revenue-sharing has a real but modest role to play in reducing inequality in police protection. Together these findings highlight a neglected aspect of equality in criminal justice.

Are US Crime Rates Really Unit Root Processes?
Jemma Cook and Steve Cook

Existing research has uncovered little evidence against the hypothesis of US crime rates being unit root processes, despite the uncomfortable implications of this assumption. In light of this, the present paper draws upon noted changes in the temporal patterns of US crime rates since 1960 to undertake an informed approach to testing of the unit root hypothesis which incorporates two potential points of structural change. The results obtained show the unit root hypothesis to be rejected for all classifications of criminal activity examined over the period 1960 to 2007. In addition, the dates of the detected breakpoints are supported by a variety of arguments available in the existing criminology literature concerning alternative determinants of crime and their movements. Interestingly, a difference is observed in the nature of the breaks detected for violent and property crimes. However, potential explanations for this are again found in theoretical arguments available in the criminology literature. Finally, the implications of the current findings for the properties of crime, its subsequent statistical analysis and past and future research are discussed.

The Relationship Between Crime and Electronic Gaming Expenditure: Evidence from Victoria, Australia
Sarah A. Wheeler, David K. Round and John K. Wilson

Gambling in Australia is a significant economic activity. Expenditure on its many forms is sizeable and has undergone sustained periods of expansion. At the same time, the structure of the gambling industry has undergone substantial change, with the use of gaming facilities in local hotels and licensed clubs now representing one of the most predominant forms of gambling. Despite this, and the extensive international literature on the relationships between gambling and crime, there have been relatively few studies which examine the local area effects of gaming establishments on crime in Australia. This study uses a unique set of data from the Australian state of Victoria, a region in which local area expansion of gaming networks has been considerable since 1991, to investigate the relationship between gaming machine expenditure and various types of crime in 1996, 2001 and 2006. One particular focus is that of income-generating crime, defined here as theft, fraud, breaking and entering, forgery, false pretences, larceny and robbery. After controlling for a host of statistical issues, our results indicate a consistent positive and significant relationship between gaming and crime rates, especially income-generating crime rates, at the local level.

Risk Clusters, Hotspots, and Spatial Intelligence: Risk Terrain Modeling as an Algorithm for Police Resource Allocation Strategies
Leslie W. Kennedy, Joel M. Caplan and Eric Piza

The study reported here follows the suggestion by Caplan et al. (Justice Q, 2010) that risk terrain modeling (RTM) be developed by doing more work to elaborate, operationalize, and test variables that would provide added value to its application in police operations. Building on the ideas presented by Caplan et al., we address three important issues related to RTM that sets it apart from current approaches to spatial crime analysis. First, we address the selection criteria used in determining which risk layers to include in risk terrain models. Second, we compare the “best model” risk terrain derived from our analysis to the traditional hotspot density mapping technique by considering both the statistical power and overall usefulness of each approach. Third, we test for “risk clusters” in risk terrain maps to determine how they can be used to target police resources in a way that improves upon the current practice of using density maps of past crime in determining future locations of crime occurrence. This paper concludes with an in depth exploration of how one might develop strategies for incorporating risk terrains into police decision-making. RTM can be developed to the point where it may be more readily adopted by police crime analysts and enable police to be more effectively proactive and identify areas with the greatest probability of becoming locations for crime in the future. The targeting of police interventions that emerges would be based on a sound understanding of geographic attributes and qualities of space that connect to crime outcomes and would not be the result of identifying individuals from specific groups or characteristics of people as likely candidates for crime, a tactic that has led police agencies to be accused of profiling. In addition, place-based interventions may offer a more efficient method of impacting crime than efforts focused on individuals.

How do Visitors Affect Crime?
Earl L. Grinols, David B. Mustard and Melissa Staha

This paper, which uses data on National Park visitors between 1979 and 1998 and every county in the United States, is the most exhaustive examination to date of how visitors affect crime. After controlling for many other factors that influence crime, the county-level regressions consistently indicate that national park visitors have no effect on either property or violent crime. These results are true for a variety of different measures of park visitors, for different empirical specifications, and for different regression formats. We therefore conclude that some visitor types have no impact on crime. This conclusion sheds light on the empirical issue of whether only some types of recreational visitors increase crime or whether visitors, regardless of their type, necessarily increase crime.

The Series Hazard Model: An Alternative to Time Series for Event Data
Laura Dugan

An important pursuit by a body of criminological research is its endeavor to determine whether interventions or policy changes effectively achieve their intended goals. Because theories predict that interventions could either improve or worsen outcomes, estimators designed to improve the accuracy of identifying program or policy effects are in demand. This article introduces the series hazard model as an alternative to interrupted time series when testing for the effects of an intervention on event-based outcomes. It compares the two approaches through an example that examines the effects of two interventions on aerial hijacking. While series hazard modeling may not be appropriate for all event-based time series data or every context, it is a robust alternative that allows for greater flexibility in many contexts.

Journal of Quantitative Criminology, September 2011: Volume 27, Issue 3

American Sociological Review 76(4)

Unions, Norms, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality
Bruce Western and Jake Rosenfeld

From 1973 to 2007, private sector union membership in the United States declined from 34 to 8 percent for men and from 16 to 6 percent for women. During this period, inequality in hourly wages increased by over 40 percent. We report a decomposition, relating rising inequality to the union wage distribution’s shrinking weight. We argue that unions helped institutionalize norms of equity, reducing the dispersion of nonunion wages in highly unionized regions and industries. Accounting for unions’ effect on union and nonunion wages suggests that the decline of organized labor explains a fifth to a third of the growth in inequality—an effect comparable to the growing stratification of wages by education.

Income Dynamics, Economic Rents, and the Financialization of the U.S. Economy
Donald Tomaskovic-Devey and Ken-Hou Lin

The 2008 collapse of the world financial system, while proximately linked to the housing bubble and risk-laden mortgage backed securities, was a consequence of the financialization of the U.S. economy since the 1970s. This article examines the institutional and income dynamics associated with the financialization of the U.S. economy, advancing a sociological explanation of income shifts into the finance sector. Complementary developments include banking deregulation, finance industry concentration, increased size and scope of institutional investors, the shareholder value movement, and dominance of the neoliberal policy model. As a result, we estimate that between 5.8 and 6.6 trillion dollars were transferred to the finance sector since 1980. We conclude that understanding inequality dynamics requires attention to market institutions and politics.

Cohesion, Cooperation, and the Value of Doing Things Together: How Economic Exchange Creates Relational Bonds
Ko Kuwabara

A recent debate in sociological exchange theory concerns which form of exchange is likely to promote cohesion in exchange relations. One side maintains that bilateral exchange, often associated with economic transactions, entails joint action to share mutual benefits, contributing more to feelings of cohesion than do independent acts of unilateral giving from one person to another, typical of social exchange. The other side argues that bilateral exchange requires dividing resources under binding terms of exchange, which strains relationships by underscoring competitive aspects of exchange. The present study reconciles these divergent claims by testing a new model of exchange that combines key propositions from past theories to specify when bilateral exchange promotes or undermines cohesion. Results from two laboratory experiments provide support for the model’s core claim that cooperative forms of bilateral exchange can reinforce cohesion more than unilateral exchange does, contrary to the enduring assumption that economic exchange undermines relational bonds.

Schools for Democracy: Labor Union Participation and Latino Immigrant Parents’ School-Based Civic Engagement
Veronica Terriquez

Scholars have long argued that civic organizations play a vital role in developing members’ civic capacity. Yet few empirical studies examine how and the extent to which civic skills transfer across distinct and separate civic contexts. Focusing on Latino immigrant members of a Los Angeles janitors’ labor union, this article fills a void by investigating union members’ involvement in an independent civic arena—their children’s schools. Analyses of random sample survey and semi-structured interview data demonstrate that labor union experience does not simply lead to more civic engagement, as previous research might suggest. Rather, conceptual distinctions must be made between active and inactive union members and between different types of civic engagement. Results show that active union members are not particularly involved in plug-in types of involvement, which are typically defined and dictated by school personnel. Instead, active union members tend to become involved in critical forms of engagement that allow them to voice their interests and exercise leadership. Furthermore, findings suggest that the problem solving, advocacy, and organizing skills acquired through union participation do not uniformly influence members’ civic engagement. Experience in a social movement union serves as a catalyst for civic engagement for some, while it enhances the leadership capacity of others.

Learning to Be Illegal: Undocumented Youth and Shifting Legal Contexts in the Transition to Adulthood
Roberto G. Gonzales

This article examines the transition to adulthood among 1.5-generation undocumented Latino young adults. For them, the transition to adulthood involves exiting the legally protected status of K to 12 students and entering into adult roles that require legal status as the basis for participation. This collision among contexts makes for a turbulent transition and has profound implications for identity formation, friendship patterns, aspirations and expectations, and social and economic mobility. Undocumented children move from protected to unprotected, from inclusion to exclusion, from de facto legal to illegal. In the process, they must learn to be illegal, a transformation that involves the almost complete retooling of daily routines, survival skills, aspirations, and social patterns. These findings have important implications for studies of the 1.5- and second-generations and the specific and complex ways in which legal status intervenes in their coming of age. The article draws on 150 interviews with undocumented 1.5-generation young adult Latinos in Southern California.

Toward a Theory of Cultural Appropriation: Buddhism, the Vietnam War, and the Field of U.S. Poetry
Baris Büyükokutan

Culture and politics have a close relationship, but how exactly does the cultural become the political? This article builds a theoretical framework for this question by examining Vietnam-era U.S. poets’ politicization of Buddhism at the expense of more effective or more easily controllable discursive resources. I find, first, that outcomes depend on whether would-be appropriators and legitimate owners of the appropriated resource can strike a mutually beneficial bargain. Second, whether two such distinct parties emerge depends on how tightly contexts of the appropriation process are linked. Consequently, appropriation is best understood as reciprocal exchange.

American Sociological Review, August 2011: Volume 76, Issue 4

Journal of Criminal Justice 39(4)

New frontiers in criminal careers research, 2000–2011: A state-of-the-art review
Matt DeLisi, Alex R. Piquero

Criminal careers research is increasingly aligning with self-control theory, psychopathy, the developmental taxonomy, and biosocial criminology. Criminal careers research is poised to combine with developmental psychopathology research to offer a full life-course understanding of crime. Career criminals are analogous to allied constructs in clinical psychology that point to pathological and extreme antisocial conduct for a small subset of criminal offenders.

Life domains and crime: A test of Agnew's general theory of crime and delinquency
Fawn T. Ngo, Raymond Paternoster, Francis T. Cullen, Doris Layton Mackenzie

We conduct a preliminary test of Agnew's general theory of crime and delinquency. Whether each of the five life domain variables is related to recidivism. Whether there is a non-linear relationship between the life domains and recidivism. Whether the five life domains interact in causing recidivism. Only two life domains are significant and none of the interactions are significant.

The effect of perceived risk and victimization on plans to purchase a gun for self-protection
Gary Kleck, Tomislav Kovandzic, Mark Saber, Will Hauser

We studied the impact of prior victimization and perceived risk on gun ownership. The main problem is that gun ownership can affect crime risk, victimization. We solved this problem by relating plans to get guns to risk and victimization. Crime risk, prior victimization have significant positive effects on gun ownership.

What works (or doesn't) in a DUI court? An example of expedited case processing
Jeffrey A. Bouffard, Leana A. Bouffard

The expedited case processing docket for DUI significantly reduced the number of DUI case filings. There was no effect of the DUI court docket on the number of alcohol-involved collisions. The expedited court docket reduced case processing time as intended. Certainty did not change, and severity declined during the time period.

Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review
Shayne E. Jones, Joshua D. Miller, Donald R. Lynam

Sustaining families, dissuading crime: The effectiveness of a family preservation program with male delinquents
Brie Diamond, Robert G. Morris, Jonathan W. Caudill

Deficits in family functioning have been linked with delinquent behavior. Family Preservation aims to reduce recidivism by addressing family problems. This study analyzes the effectiveness of FP with male juvenile delinquents. The results fails to provide support for the use of FP with male delinquents. Results highlight the importance of treatment fidelity in CJ programs.

Population heterogeneity, state dependence and sexual offender recidivism: The aging process and the lost predictive impact of prior criminal charges over time
Joanna Amirault, Patrick Lussier

Population heterogeneity and state dependent models were explored with sex offenders Prior offending in early adulthood loses its predictive value with the passage of time Most recent offenses in the period considered were most predictive of recidivism Offender age at release and educational achievement were associated with recidivism Risk assessment should consider both the age and the passage of time to assess risk of reoffending

Incarceration, education and transition from delinquency
Thomas G. Blomberg, William D. Bales, Karen Mann, Alex R. Piquero, Richard A. Berk

Much of what is known regarding the transition away from crime is limited to young adulthood, specific life events and general population samples. This study assesses the links between educational achievement, post-release schooling, and re-arrest for a cohort of incarcerated youths from Florida juvenile institutions and followed for two years post-release. Results indicate that youths with higher educational achievement are more likely to return to school after release, and those youths who returned to and attended school regularly were less likely to be rearrested. Among youths who were rearrested, those youth who attended school regularly following release were arrested for significantly less serious offenses compared to youths who did not attend school or attended less regularly. The study highlight educational achievement as an important turning point for juvenile offenders as they transition into young adulthood.

Journal of Criminal Justice, July 2011: Volume 39, Issue 4

The ANNALS of the AAPSS 637

Race, Religion, and Late Democracy

Introduction: Democracy’s Anxious Returns
David Kyuman Kim and John L. Jackson, Jr.

"Look, Baby, We Got Jesus on Our Flag": Robust Democracy and Religious Debate from the Era of Slavery to the Age of Obama
Edward J. Blum

Forerunner: The Campaigns and Career of Edward Brooke
Jason Sokol

Iran’s French Revolution: Religion, Philosophy, and Crowds
Roxanne Varzi

Democracy’s New Song: Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 and the Melodramatic Imagination
Marina Bilbija

Habits of the Heart: Youth Religious Participation as Progress, Peril, or Change?
Monica R. Miller and Ezekiel J. Dixon-Roman

Populism and Late Liberalism: A Special Affinity?
Jean Comroff

Chadors, Feminists, Terror: The Racial Politics of U.S. Media Representations of the 1979 Iranian Women’s Movement
Sylvia Chan-Malik

The End of Neoliberalism?: What Is Left of the Left
John Comaroff

Religion as Race, Recognition as Democracy: Lemba "Black Jews" in South Africa
Noah Tamarkin

The Race toward Caraqueño Citizenship: Negotiating Race, Class, and Participatory Democracy
Giles Harrison-Conwill

The Racialization of Islam in American Law
Neil Gotanda

The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, September 2011: Volume 637

Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency 48(3)

Gang Set Space, Drug Markets, and Crime around Drug Corners in Camden
Travis A. Taniguchi, Jerry H. Ratcliffe, and Ralph B. Taylor

Gang set space is defined as ‘‘the actual area within the neighborhood where gang members come together as a gang’’ (Tita, Cohen, and Engberg 2005:280). The current article examines one subarea of gang set space: where gangs maintain street corner-centered open-air drug markets. Two types of corners—corner markets dominated by one gang and corner markets with multiple gangs—were contrasted with one another and with non-gang, non-dealing corners. Functional and corporate perspectives on gangs would both predict single gang corner markets to have lower violent and property crime than non-gang corners, whereas a traditional view would predict more violence. Territorial and economic competition models expect the highest crime levels around corner markets occupied by multiple gangs. Using Thiessen polygons to define the sphere of influence of each corner, and controlling for community demographic fabric and nearby crime, results showed higher crime counts around space used for drug distribution and higher still when the set space was occupied by multiple drug gangs. Further, crime counts were higher in less stable locales. The portions of drug gang set space centered on small, known, open-air corner drug markets, especially when control is questioned, link to more crime.

Gang Membership and Race as Risk Factors for Juvenile Arrest
Michael Tapia

This study addresses the link between gang membership and arrest frequency, exploring the Gang × Race interaction on those arrests. The focus on youth’s earliest point of contact with the juvenile justice system corresponds to the latest priority of the federal initiative on Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC). Using Poisson regression to analyze longitudinal data on a representative sample of U.S. teens, results support both main effects and interaction hypotheses. Gang membership, racial minority status, and their interaction each increase the risk of arrest, controlling for other demographic and legal items. Results suggest that bias against these groups is most pronounced with less serious crimes. Main effects for Black youth are stronger than for Hispanic youth, underscoring the importance of conducting tests for each minority group separately. Interactions for Black and Hispanic gang youth are equally robust, suggesting they warrant similar priority in policy initiatives to reduce DMC.

Theft in Price-Volatile Markets: On the Relationship between Copper Price and Copper Theft
Aiden Sidebottom, Jyoti Belur, Kate Bowers, Lisa Tompson, and Shane D. Johnson

Recently, against a backdrop of general reductions in acquisitive crime, increases have been observed in the frequency of metal theft offences. This is generally attributed to increases in metal prices in response to global demand exceeding supply. The main objective of this article was to examine the relationship between the price of copper and levels of copper theft, focusing specifically on copper cable theft from the British railway network. Results indicated a significant positive correlation between lagged increases in copper price and copper cable theft. No support was found for rival hypotheses concerning U.K. unemployment levels and the general popularity of theft as crime type. An ancillary aim was to explore offender modus operandi over time, which is discussed in terms of its implications for preventing copper cable theft. The authors finish with a discussion of theft of other commodities in price-volatile markets.

Influence or Convenience? Disentangling Peer Influence and Co-offending for Chronic offenders
Jean Marie McGloin and Wendy Povitsky Stickle

Both developmental and propensity theories root the etiology of chronic offending in factors other than peer influence. This does not mean that peers have no role in the expression of chronic offending, however. For instance, scholars have noted that offending with accomplices (i.e., co-offending) can reflect processes other than normative influence, such as selection and cooperation. Drawing from these notions, this investigation hypothesizes that chronic offenders will be less likely to cite peer influence as a reason for their deviance when compared to other offenders, whereas they will be equally likely to engage in group offending. The analysis uses information from the Racine cohort data and the results support the hypothesis. The discussion considers the implications of these findings for theory and research, as well as provides directions for future work.

Are Similar Sex Offenders Treated Similarly? A Conjunctive Analysis of Disparities in Community Notification Decisions
Deborah Koetzle Shaffer and Terance D. Miethe

Using a sample of sex offenders in the state of Washington, the current study examines the nature and magnitude of disparities in notification decisions among distinct groups of sex offenders. The method of conjunctive analysis is used to describe the extent to which similar types of sex offenders (i.e., groups of sex offenders that share similar sets of risk factors for re-offending) are treated similarly in notification decisions. The observed patterns of widespread disparities in these decisions among distinct composite profiles of sex offenders are then discussed in terms of their implications for future research on evaluating disparity in criminal processing, the collateral consequences of notification decisions, and ongoing public policy on the control and management of sex offenders.

Examining Juvenile Delinquency within Activity Space: Building a Context for Offender Travel Patterns
Gisela Bichler, Jill Christie-Merrall, and Dale Sechrest

Researchers modeling offender travel patterns typically assume that crime locations are well within the offenders’ activity space. Using information about the places frequented by 2,563 delinquent youths residing in Southern California, this study examined distances traveled to delinquent and nondelinquent hangout locations. Travel to known delinquent sites was substantively farther from home than expected and exhibited a segmented nonlinear curve, joining logarithmic and negative exponential functions. Significant variation was found for place-specific (trip distance) and person-specific (individual travel) distances by city classification, travel method, and age cohort; age effects disappeared in multivariate analyses. Several implications follow, highlighting the need to infuse a place-oriented approach to studying journey-to-crime.

Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, August 2011: Volume 48, Issue 3

Criminology & Public Policy 10(3)

Special Issue on Mass Incarceration

The past, present, and future of mass incarceration in the United States
Marie Gottschalk

Monetary Sanctions As Misguided Policy

On cash and conviction
Katherine Beckett and Alexes Harris

Substantial fees and fines now are now routinely imposed by courts and other criminal justice agencies across the United States. This article summarizes research on the imposition of monetary sanctions in the United States and shows how they differ from European day fines. In the contemporary United States, court-imposed legal financial obligations supplement other criminal penalties in the majority of felony and misdemeanor cases. Judges impose many fees and fines at their discretion, and evidence from Washington State indicates that extralegal factors–including ethnicity–influence their assessment. Many states have also authorized jails, departments of correction, and probation offices to levy fees. In the United States, fees and fine amounts are determined by statute and are not tethered to defendants’ earnings. Recent studies suggest that the assessment of these penalties often generate long-term debts that are sizeable relative to expected earnings and impede reintegration.

This essay contends that the disadvantages of the widespread and discretionary imposition of substantial and supplementary financial penalties outweigh any benefits associated with this practice. Proponents of correctional and court fees argue that offenders—not taxpayers—should pay for the cost of punishing their misdeeds. The idea that offenders should foot the bill for criminal justice expenditures is a moral and political claim, one that likely has broad appeal. Nonetheless, this claim is in tension with at least two other important principles. First, public criminal law systems rest on the premise that crime is mainly a wrong against the state; violations of criminal law are thought to be significant enough to warrant the state's usurpation of the dispute resolution process. Compelling defendants to reimburse the state for its criminal justice expenditures is in tension with this principle. Moreover, unlike users of other services for which fees are assessed, penal targets are compelled to partake of these services; they cannot use fewer of them or look for an alternative provider of them. It can be argued that if the state compels penal targets to use (often expensive and ineffective) state “services,” then the government is obligated to pay for them. Indeed, this fiscal obligation is arguably an important check on government power.

Fixing the Broken System of Financial Sanctions
Traci R. Burch

Politicizing the case for fines
Pat O’Malley

A new punishment regime
Mary Fainsod Katzenstein and Mitali Nagrecha

The abolition of fines and fees
R. Barry Ruback

Justice Reinvestment

A private-sector, incentives-based model for justice reinvestment
Todd R. Clear

Justice reinvestment is a recent strategy designed to reduce the use of incarceration and divert the savings to improve the circumstances of communities that have high incarceration rates. More than a dozen states have mounted justice reinvestment projects. While support for justice reinvestment remains high, actual results have been mixed. In particular, the “community reinvestment” aspect of justice reinvestment has been disappointing. An approach that focuses on the private sector and creates incentives for private justice reinvestment could resolve some of these current limitations of the method.

Advocates for justice reinvestment would be able to address some of the problems in the approach by developing financial incentives that involve the private sector in justice reinvestment activity.

Encouraging innovation on the foundation of evidence
James H. Burch, II

Justice reinvestment and the use of imprisonment
Rob Allen

Making imprisonment unprofitable
James Austin

Making peace, not a desert
Michael Tonry

Justice reinvestment in community supervision
Mark A. R. Kleiman

Lessons for justice reinvestment from restorative justice and the justice model experience
Shadd Maruna

American Penal Overindulgence

Mass incarceration, legal change, and locale
Mona Lynch

In this article, I have three major aims. First, I examine in detail the role that changes to legal policies and practice have played in the rise of mass incarceration. I look at four distinct aspects of legal change and argue that the law (and legal change) in these varied forms is the engine that has driven prison growth and, therefore, must be addressed in explanations of this phenomenon. This discussion leads to my second major goal, which is to move beyond national-level explanations of American mass incarceration and call for a more unified empirically based understanding that highlights the localized social, cultural, and political factors that have contributed to the imprisonment explosion. I conclude by exploring how this kind of theorization provides a road map to a more localized policy reform strategy that aims to reduce our reliance on incarceration.

Addressing the political environment shaping mass incarceration
Marc Mauer

Leaving mass incarceration
Karol Lucken

Putting politics in penal policy reform
Heather Schoenfeld

The local and the legal (pages 725–732)
Lisa L. Miller

Prison Officer Unions

Prison Officer Unions and the Perpetuation of the Penal Status Quo
Joshua Page

An unintended consequence of mass imprisonment is the growth of prison officer unions. This article shows how successful corrections unions in states like California and New York obstruct efforts to implement sentencing reforms, shutter prisons, and slash corrections budgets. They impede downsizing-oriented reforms by generating or exacerbating fear among voters and politicians. Policy makers in key states must overcome resistance from prison officer unions to downscale prisons. Through a combination of accommodation and confrontation, policy makers can relax opposition from the officer organizations and undertake prison downsizing efforts without busting the unions.

Downsizing the carceral state
Heather Ann Thompson

American imprisonment and prison officers’ unions
Anthony N. Doob and Rosemary Gartner

Mass Imprisonment and Childhood Behavior Problems

Mass imprisonment and racial disparities in childhood behavioral problems
Sara Wakefield and Christopher Wildeman

This essay provides estimates of the influence of mass imprisonment on racial disparities in childhood well-being. To do so, we integrate results from three existing studies in a novel way. The first two studies use two contemporary, broadly representative data sets to estimate the effects of paternal incarceration on a range of child behavioral and mental health problems. The third study estimates changes in Black–White disparities in the risk of paternal imprisonment across the 1978 and 1990 American birth cohorts. Our research demonstrates the following: (1) The average effect of paternal incarceration on children is harmful, not helpful, and consistently in the direction of more mental health and behavioral problems. (2) The rapid increase in the use of imprisonment coupled with significant racial disparities in the likelihood of paternal (and maternal) imprisonment are linked to large racial disparities in childhood mental health and behavioral problems. (3) We find that mass imprisonment might have increased Black–White inequities in externalizing behaviors by 14–26% and in internalizing behaviors by 25–45%.

Our results add to a growing research literature indicating that the costs associated with mass imprisonment extend far beyond well-documented impacts on current inmates. The legacy of mass incarceration will be continued and worsening racial disparities in childhood mental health and well-being, educational attainment, and occupational attainment. Moreover, the negative effects of mass imprisonment for childhood well-being are likely to remain, even if incarceration rates returned to pre-1970s levels. Our results show that paternal incarceration exacerbates child behavioral and mental health problems and that large, growing racial disparities in the risk of imprisonment have contributed to significant racial differences in child well-being. The policy implications of our work are as follows: (1) Estimates of the costs associated with the current scale of imprisonment are likely to be severely underestimated because they do not account for the significant indirect effects of mass incarceration for children, for families, and for other social institutions such as the educational system and social service providers. (2) Policies that reduce incarceration rates for nonviolent offenders with no history of domestic violence will most dramatically reduce the effects of mass incarceration on childhood racial inequality. More research is needed to detail other important factors (e.g., crime type, criminal history, or gender of parent) that condition the effect of paternal incarceration on children. (3) Paternal incarceration effects target the most disadvantaged and vulnerable of children and are likely to result in long-term behavioral health problems. We propose a strengthening of the social safety net—especially as it applies to the poorest children—and programs that address the complicated needs of children of incarcerated parents.

The incarceration ledger
Robert J. Sampson

Is the devil in the details?
Candace Kruttschnitt

Taking children into account
Megan Comfort, Anne M. Nurse, Tasseli McKay and Katie Kramer

The consequences of incarceration
Michael Massoglia and Cody Warner

Countering the carceral continuum
Carla Shedd


Criminology & Public Policy, August 2011: Volume 10, Issue 3

Annual Review of Sociology 37

Prefatory Chapters

Reflections on a Sociological Career that Integrates Social Science with Social Policy
William Julius Wilson

Emotional Life on the Market Frontier
Arlie Hochschild

Theory and Methods

Foucault and Sociology
Michael Power

How to Conduct a Mixed Methods Study: Recent Trends in a Rapidly Growing Literature
Mario Luis Small

Social Theory and Public Opinion
Andrew J. Perrin and Katherine McFarland

The Sociology of Storytelling
Francesca Polletta, Pang Ching Bobby Chen, Beth Gharrity Gardner, and Alice Motes

Statistical Models for Social Networks
Tom A.B. Snijders

The Neo-Marxist Legacy in American Sociology
Jeff Manza and Michael A. McCarthy

Social Processes

Societal Reactions to Deviance
Ryken Grattet

Formal Organizations

U.S. Health-Care Organizations: Complexity, Turbulence, and Multilevel Change
Mary L. Fennell and Crystal M. Adams

Political and Economic Sociology

Political Economy of the Environment
Thomas K. Rudel, J. Timmons Roberts, and JoAnn Carmin

The Sociology of Finance
Bruce G. Carruthers and Jeong-Chul Kim

Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control
Jennifer Earl

Emotions and Social Movements: Twenty Years of Theory and Research
James M. Jasper

Employment Stability in the U.S. Labor Market: Rhetoric versus Reality
Matissa Hollister

The Contemporary American Conservative Movement
Neil Gross, Thomas Medvetz, and Rupert Russell

Differentiation and Stratification

A World of Difference: International Trends in Women's Economic Status
Maria Charles

The Evolution of the New Black Middle Class
Bart Landry and Kris Marsh

The Integration Imperative: The Children of Low-Status Immigrants in the Schools of Wealthy Societies
Richard Alba, Jennifer Sloan, and Jessica Sperling

Gender in the Middle East: Islam, State, Agency
Mounira M. Charrad

Individual and Society

Research on Adolescence in the Twenty-First Century
Robert Crosnoe and Monica Kirkpatrick Johnson

Diversity, Social Capital, and Cohesion
Alejandro Portes and Erik Vickstrom

Transition to Adulthood in Europe
Marlis C. Buchmann and Irene Kriesi

The Sociology of Suicide
Matt Wray, Cynthia Colen, and Bernice Pescosolido

Demography

What We Know About Unauthorized Migration
Katharine M. Donato and Amada Armenta

Relations Between the Generations in Immigrant Families
Nancy Foner and Joanna Dreby

Urban and Rural Community Sociology

Rural America in an Urban Society: Changing Spatial and Social Boundaries
Daniel T. Lichter and David L. Brown

Policy

Family Changes and Public Policies in Latin America
Brígida García and Orlandina de Oliveira


Annual Review of Sociology, 2011: Volume 37

Social Forces 89(4)

Migration and Families

Health Costs of Wealth Gains: Labor Migration and Perceptions of HIV/AIDS Risks in Mozambique
Victor Agadjanian
Carlos Arnaldo
Boaventura Cau

Migration, Remittances and Educational Stratification among Blacks in Apartheid and Post-Apartheid South Africa
Yao Lu
Donald J. Treiman

Organizations and Stratification

Why Does the Spatial Agglomeration of Firms Benefit Workers?: Examining the Role of Organizational Diversity in U.S. Industries and Labor Markets
Andrew S. Fullerton
Wayne J. Villemez

The Context of Workplace Sex Discrimination: Sex Composition, Workplace Culture and Relative Power
Kevin Stainback
Thomas N. Ratliff
Vincent J. Roscigno

Gender

The Needs of Others: Gender and Sleep Interruptions for Caregivers
Sarah A. Burgard

Early Pubertal Timing and the Union Formation Behaviors of Young Women
Shannon E. Cavanagh

Work and Attitudes

Origins and Outcomes of Judgments about Work
Monica Kirkpatrick Johnson
Jeylan T. Mortimer

Adolescent Cognitive Skills, Attitudinal/Behavioral Traits and Career Wages
Matthew Hall
George Farkas

Mental Health

The Social Structuring of Mental Health over the Adult Life Course: Advancing Theory in the Sociology of Aging
Philippa Clarke
Victor Marshall
James House
Paula Lantz

Coping with the Stigma of Mental Illness: Empirically-GroundedHypotheses from Computer Simulations
Amy Kroska
Sarah K. Harkness

Education and Work-Family Conflict: Explanations, Contingencies and Mental Health Consequences
Scott Schieman
Paul Glavin

Social Relations

Social Relations that Generate and Sustain Solidarity after a Mass Tragedy
James Hawdon
John Ryan

Who We'll Live With: Neighborhood Racial Composition Preferences of Whites, Blacks and Latinos
Valerie A. Lewis
Michael O. Emerson
Stephen L. Klineberg

Quantitative Methods

Standards for Standardized Logistic Regression Coefficients
Scott Menard

Social Forces, June 2011: Volume 89, Issue 4

Theory and Society 40(4)

Wildcats in banking fields: the politics of financial inclusion
Simone Polillo

“Wall Street” meets Wagner: Harnessing institutional heterogeneity
Stoyan V. Sgourev

Self-limitation of modernity? The theory of reflexive taboos
Ulrich Beck & Natan Sznaider

The religious field and the path-dependent transformation of popular politics in the Anglo-American world, 1770–1840
Peter Stamatov

Theory and Society, July 2011: Volume 40, Issue 4

The Annals of the AAPSS 636

Patrimonial Power in the Modern World

Introduction: Patrimonialism, Past and Present
Mounira M. Charrad and Julia Adams

Patrimonial Alliances and Failures of State Penetration: A Historical Dynamic of Crime, Corruption, Gangs, and Mafias
Randall Collins

Plebiscitarian Patrimonialism in Putin’s Russia: Legitimating Authoritarianism in a Postideological Era
Stephen E. Hanson

Central and Local Patrimonialism: State-Building in Kin-Based Societies
Mounira M. Charrad

The Legacies of Patrimonial Patriarchalism: Contesting Political Legitimacy in Allende’s Chile
Gwynn Thomas

Patrimonialism, Elite Networks, and Reform in Late-Eighteenth-Century Poland
Paul D. Mclean

Where the State Feared to Tread: Conscription and Local Patriarchalism in Modern France
Dorit Geva

African Patrimonialism in Historical Perspective: Assessing Decentralized and Privatized Tax Administration
Edgar Kiser and Audrey Sacks

Political Familism in Lebanon
Suad Joseph

Interlocking Patrimonialisms and State Formation in Qing China and Early Modern Europe
Liping Wang and Julia Adams

Patrimony and Collective Capacity: An Analytical Outline
Ivan Ermakoff

Coda: American Patrimonialism: The Return of the Repressed
Richard Lachmann

The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, July 2011: Volume 636

Journal of Marriage and Family 73(4)

Brief Report

Reciprocal Associations Between Connectedness and Autonomy Among Korean Adolescents: Compatible or Antithetical?
Jeong Jin Yu

Special Section on Transnational Families

Transnational Families and the Well-Being of Children: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges
Valentina Mazzucato and Djamila Schans

Migration, Social Networks, and Child Health in Mexican Families
Katharine M. Donato and Ebony M. Duncan

Parenting From Abroad: Migration, Nonresident Father Involvement, and Children's Education in Mexico
Jenna Nobles

Back to Africa: Second Chances for the Children of West African Immigrants
Caroline H. Bledsoe and Papa Sow

Migrant Parents and the Psychological Well-Being of Left-Behind Children in Southeast Asia
Elspeth Graham and Lucy P. Jordan

A Mixed-Methods Social Networks Study Design for Research on Transnational Families
Laura Bernardi

Exchange on Gene–Environment Interplay, Family Relationships, and Child Adjustment

Gene–Environment Interplay, Family Relationships, and Child Adjustment
Briana N. Horwitz and Jenae M. Neiderhiser

Biopsychosocial Models and the Study of Family Processes and Child Adjustment
Susan D. Calkins

Families and Genomes: The Next Generation
Kirby Deater-Deckard

Understanding Family Process and Child Adjustment Through Behavioral Genetic Research: A Reply
Briana N. Horwitz and Jenae M. Neiderhiser

Of General Interest

Headed Toward Equality? Housework Change in Comparative Perspective
Claudia Geist and Philip N. Cohen

Market Earnings and Household Work: New Tests of Gender Performance Theory
Daniel Schneider

Who Lacks Support and Why? An Examination of Mothers' Personal Safety Nets
Kristen S. Harknett and Caroline Sten Hartnett

Intermarriage, Ethnic Identity, and Perceived Social Standing Among Asian Women in the United States
Juan Chen and David T. Takeuchi


Journal of Marriage and Family, August 2011: Volume 73, Issue 4

British Journal of Criminology 51(4)

Masculinity, Marginalization and Violence: A Case Study of the English Defence League
James Treadwell and Jon Garland

In this article, we use three case studies, undertaken with young, white, working-class men involved in the English Defence League, to examine how they construct a specific form of violent masculinity. We argue that these accounts demonstrate that violence is socio-structurally generated but also individually psychologically justified, because these young men turn experiences of acute inequality and disenchantment into inner psychological scripts that justify their own ‘heroic’ status when involved in violent confrontation. We suggest that these feelings of disadvantage and marginalization prompt resentment and anger in young males who feel their voices are not being heard. This disenchantment manifests itself through externalized hostility, resentment and fury directed at the scapegoat for their ills: the Islamic ‘other’.

‘Guys! Stop Doing It!’: Young Women's Adoption and Rejection of Safety Advice when Socializing in Bars, Pubs and Clubs
Oona Brooks

Concern about the increase in alcohol consumption amongst young women, drink spiking and drug-assisted sexual assault have culminated in a renewed focus on safety advice for young women. This paper examines young women's responses to safety advice, and their associated safety behaviours, by drawing upon interview and focus group data from a qualitative study with 35 young women (18–25 years) in relation to their safety in bars, pubs and clubs. The findings reveal that young women's behaviours were complex and contradictory in that they resisted, adopted and transgressed recommended safety behaviours. This raises interesting questions about both the practical and the theoretical implications of contemporary safety campaigns, challenging the prevailing focus on women's behaviour and the gendered discourse invoked by such campaigns.

Democracy and Demonstration in the Grey Area of Neo-Liberalism: A Case Study of Free Los Angeles High School
Tim Goddard and Randy Myers

School punishment policies in the United States are increasingly prone to exclusion. In an effort to rid the school of risky disturbances, these measures push disruptive students out of the educational environment or into the criminal justice system. The task of educating these excluded youth has undergone a process of neo-liberal ‘responsibilization’, as communities are charged with dealing with drop-outs and push-outs from mainstream schools as well as system-involved youth. This is illustrated by a case study of a community school established by a social movement organization in Los Angeles, United States. While neo-liberalism is touted as a vehicle for crime control and efficiency, in practice, the outcomes of responsibilization can set the stage for progressive take on education to burgeon as well as mobilization against ‘law and order’ policies and social abandonment that come with adherence to market principles.

Policing Markets: The Contested Shaping of Neo-Liberal Forensic Science
Christopher James Lawless

This paper addresses the effects of recent political and economic trends on the construction of forensic science in England and Wales. Using documentary sources and fieldwork, I show how neo-liberal initiatives have differentially reconstructed relationships between forensic scientists and the police. I argue that this stems from contested interpretations of scientific integration that have selectively appropriated elements of neo-liberalism. Neo-liberal reform of forensic science has, however, exposed actors to new risks, culminating in the UK Government's announcement to close the Forensic Science Service. Yet, rather than representing the end of ‘marketization’, debates concerning the organization of forensic science have entered a new phase. These hold significant implications for understanding the relationship between crime, science and advanced liberal governance.

Resisting Administrative Tolerance in the Netherlands: A Rightist Backlash?
Peter Mascini and Dick Houtman

Representatives of rightist-conservative political groups have denounced the Dutch policy of administrative tolerance (‘gedoogbeleid’) as a left-libertarian excess. On the basis of a representative survey among the Dutch population (N = 1,892), we demonstrate, however, that such resistance is not typically ‘rightist’ or ‘conservative’. Even though conservatives are more likely to oppose administrative tolerance as a general policy type, this is merely because they associate it with the toleration of illegal activities by marginal individuals. Whereas they do oppose the latter more than political progressives do, the latter are, for their part, more critical than conservatives about the toleration of illegal activities by official agencies.

A Symposium of Reviews of Public Criminology? by Ian Loader and Richard Sparks
Contributors: Nils Christie, Elliott Currie, Helena Kennedy, Gloria Laycock, Rod Morgan, Joe Sim, Jacqueline Tombs, Reece Walters

British Journal of Criminology, July 2011: Volume 51, Issue 4

Journal of Criminal Justice 39(3)

Addiction and the Criminal Justice System 

Addiction and criminal justice: Empirical findings and theory for advancing public safety and health  
Michael Vaughn

Multivariate comparison of male and female adolescent substance abusers with accompanying legal problems
Ralph E. Tarter, Levent Kirisci, Ada Mezzich, David Patton

Adolescent girls who have substance abuse and legal problems have more pervasive disturbances than boys. Peer relationships in boys but not girls mediate the association between family disturbance and substance abuse. Derived table of standardized scores reveal that overall severity of problems in substance abusing girls with or without legal problems is about 10% more severe than boys.

Characteristics of abstainers from substance use and antisocial behavior in the United States
Michael G. Vaughn, Qiang Fu, Stephen J. Wernet, Matt DeLisi, Kevin M. Beaver, Brian E. Perron, Matthew O. Howard

The prevalence of abstaining in the U.S. was 11 percent.  Abstainers were significantly more likely to be female, Asian, African-American, and employed.  Abstainers were also significantly less likely to evidence lifetime mood, anxiety, or personality disorder compared to non-abstainers.  Abstainers were also less likely to be diagnosed with a mental health disorder than non-abstainers.

Marijuana but not alcohol use during adolescence mediates the association between transmissible risk for substance use disorder and number of lifetime violent offenses
Maureen D. Reynolds, Ralph E. Tarter, Levent Kirisci, Duncan B. Clark

A measure of SUD risk at age 10–12 predicted violence committed by early adulthood. > The TLI is a significant predictor of violent offending in both genders. Increase in marijuana use over the teen years contributes to violent acts by age 22. Alcohol use in teen years does not contribute to violent acts by age 22.

An empirical portrait of youthful offenders who sell drugs
Jeffrey J. Shook, Michael Vaughn, Sara Goodkind, Heath Johnson

Approximately 70% of youthful offenders in the sample sold drugs or were involved in drug selling.  Sixty-four percent who reported selling drugs did so daily and 54% sold drugs for more than one year.  Nearly 69% of the youthful offenders who sold drugs kept more than half of what they purchased.  Youthful offenders who sold drugs were more likely to use substances than those who did not.  Youthful offenders who reported selling prescription drugs reported the highest rate of substance use.

Examining the relationship among substance abuse, negative emotionality and impulsivity across subtypes of antisocial and psychopathic substance abusers
Melissa S. Magyar, John F. Edens, Scott O. Lilienfeld, Kevin S. Douglas, Norman G. Poythress Jr.

Secondary psychopathy is more strongly related to substance problems than primary psychopathy.  The relationship between substance use and negative emotions is stronger among non-psychopaths.  The etiology of substance abuse may differ for psychopathic versus nonpsychopathic offenders.

Predictors of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and self-harm without lethal intent in a community corrections sample
Tracy D. Gunter, John T. Chibnall, Sandra K. Antoniak, Robert A. Philibert, Nancy Hollenbeck

Community offenders have high frequencies of suicidal ideas and self-harm.  Traumatic experience and fractures predicted suicidal ideas and self-harm.  Drug dependence predicted suicidal ideation.  Panic predicted self-harm without lethal intent.  Total PCL:SV score predicted self-harm, Factor 2 score predicted suicidal ideation.

Substance abuse treatment for juvenile offenders: A review of quasi-experimental and experimental research
Stephen J. Tripodi, Kimberly Bender

Quantitative analysis to review literature on alcohol and marijuana reduction interventions for adolescents.  Analyzed five studies with alcohol use outcomes and five studies with marijuana use outcomes.  Found that substance abuse interventions appear to have a small to moderate effect on alcohol and marijuana reduction for substance abusing juvenile offenders.

Targeting dispositions for drug-involved offenders: A field trial of the Risk and Needs Triage (RANT)™
Douglas B. Marlowe, David S. Festinger, Karen L. Dugosh, Anne Caron, Marcy R. Podkopacz, Nicolle T. Clements

The RANT™ predicted recidivism for felony drug and property offenders.  Criminogenic risk and need constituted independent and coherent factors.  Trends favored better outcomes for offenders who received suitable dispositions.

Decide your time: Testing deterrence theory's certainty and celerity effects on substance-using probationers
Daniel O'Connell, Christy A. Visher, Steven Martin, Laurin Parker, John Brent

Describes Delaware's Decide Your Time (DYT) program.  Theoretically built program based on certainty of punishment and graduated sanctions.  Identifies complications initiating and implementing such a program like DYT.  Need for programs to consider execution logistics and local legal structures.

Pathways through drugs and crime: Desistance, trauma and resilience
Richard Hammersley

There are pathways through drugs and crime other than experimentation or drug dependence.  Neglected pathways include intense substance use and offending which remits untreated.  As adolescents age into adulthood they tend to reduce offending and increase substance use.  Intense use is widely confused with dependence, which perpetuates ineffective and inappropriate interventions.  Psychological trauma may trigger intense use and persistent or repeated trauma may cause drug dependence.

Civil asset forfeiture, equitable sharing, and policing for profit in the United States
Jefferson E. Holcomb, Tomislav V. Kovandzic, Marian R. Williams

Crime-minimizing drug policy
Mark A.R. Kleiman, Lowry Heussler

Smarter drug policies could reduce non-drug crime.

Journal of Criminal Justice, May 2011: Volume 39, Issue 3

Crime & Delinquency 57(4)

Public Opinion Regarding Juvenile Life Without Parole in Consecutive Statewide Surveys
Sheryl Pimlott Kubiak and Terrence Allen

Abolition of the death penalty results in life without parole (LWOP) as the most severe sanction for convicted juveniles. Although internationally the use of LWOP for juveniles is rare, 2,225 youth have been sentenced to LWOP within the United States. To address the dearth of public opinion on the issue, the authors proposed questions to the survey administrators who then selected them for inclusion in two annual statewide surveys. They found that support for LWOP diminishes considerably when respondents are given a more complex array of sentencing options rather than a dichotomous choice to agree or disagree with the current policy. Those supporting LWOP are more likely to be younger, male, and White. These findings support the need for more nuanced and complex discussions and polling language, as well as policy alternatives.

“Deterrability” Among Gang and Nongang Juvenile Offenders: Are Gang Members More (or Less) Deterrable Than Other Juvenile Offenders?
Cheryl L. Maxson, Kristy N. Matsuda, and Karen Hennigan

This study investigates the effect of the threat of legal sanctions on intentions to commit three types of offenses with a representative sample of 744 officially adjudicated youth with varying histories of offenses and gang involvement. In a departure from previous research, the authors find small severity effects for property crimes that are not negated by past offending experience, morality, or anticipated loss of respect from adults or peers. Gang members appear to be vulnerable to the effects of certainty of punishment for vehicle theft. These results challenge the current crime policy of increased reliance on punishment to deter gang crime but suggest that increasing gang members’ certainty of apprehension might hold some promise for reduction of some gang crime.

Exploring Sources of Punitiveness Among German Citizens
Joshua C. Cochran and Alex R. Piquero

Prior research examining punitive attitudes has typically focused on the United States and citizens’ support for the death penalty or American “get tough” criminal policies. Yet, little is known as to how punitive attitudes and their sources vary internationally. Using Germany as a case study, this article expands the scope of punitiveness research by examining how factors typically examined in American studies, such as cynicism, institutional trust, law and order culture, and antiminority attitudes, relate to citizen beliefs about punishment in a different cultural context. Findings suggest that distrust of the judicial system, political prioritization of law and order, and antiminority attitudes predict citizens’ support for severe punishment as an effective crime-reduction technique. Implications and directions for future research are highlighted.

The Impact of Information on Death Penalty Support, Revisited
Eric G. Lambert, Scott D. Camp, Alan Clarke, and Shanhe Jiang

In 1972, former Supreme Court Justice Marshall postulated that the public was uninformed about the death penalty and information would change their support for it. There is some indication that information about the death penalty may change people’s level of support. This study re-examines data used by Lambert and Clarke (2001). Using multivariate analyses, the impact that information has on death penalty support is tested, along with level of prior knowledge about the death penalty, personal characteristics (gender, age, political affiliation, race, being a criminal justice major, academic level), and religious factors. The results suggest that information on both deterrence and innocence leads to a reduction in death penalty support and views on the death penalty. Furthermore, the results suggest that the information presented may have varying effects among different subgroups of people.

Criminality Among Rural Stimulant Users in the United States
Carrie Oser, Carl Leukefeld, Michele Staton-Tindall, Jamieson Duvall, Thomas Garrity, William Stoops, Russel Falck, Jichuan Wang, Robert Carlson, Rocky Sexton, Patricia Wright, and Brenda Booth

Despite the increase in media attention on “meth cooking” in rural areas of the United States, little is known about rural stimulant use—particularly, the criminality associated with stimulant use. Data were collected from community stimulant users in rural Ohio, Arkansas, and Kentucky (N = 709). Findings from three logistic regression models indicate that younger stimulant users (M = 32.55, SD = 10.35), those with more convictions, and those who used crack frequently were significantly more likely to have been arrested for committing a substance-related crime, a property crime, or another crime in the 6 months before entering the study. Implications include the need for longitudinal studies to further understand rural stimulant use, as well as increased community and corrections-based drug abuse prevention and treatment interventions for stimulant users who live in rural areas.

The Impact of School Environment and Grade Level on Student Delinquency: A Multilevel Modeling Approach
Celia C. Lo, Young S. Kim, Thomas M. Allen, Andrea N. Allen, P. Allison Minugh, and Nicoletta Lomuto

Effects on delinquency made by grade level, school type (based on grade levels accommodated), and prosocial school climate were assessed, controlling for individual-level risk and protective factors. Data were obtained from the Substance Abuse Services Division of Alabama’s state mental health agency and analyzed via hierarchical linear modeling, yielding three major findings. First, grade level’s effects on delinquency varied strongly by school type, although in the multivariate context the interaction effects of grade level and school type were not significant. Second, prosocial school climate significantly explained differential delinquency rates. Third, the requirement that students change schools upon reaching a certain grade level does, as the literature notes, appear to lead to a poor environmental fit for students’ developmental needs.

Crime & Delinquency, July 2011: Volume 57, Issue 4